Bread Improvers and its Classification

There is the variable quality of flour and it depends on the soil conditions, weather conditions, and the location of the country. Therefore it becomes necessary to add something to the dough to bring the bread to a predetermined standard. Such ingredients are called bread improvers. Their addition should be done judiciously otherwise the quality of the bread instead of improving may actually worsen. Improvers optimize all aspects of the bread and give bakers the required tolerance and flexibility during all stages of the baking process: mixing, fermentation, baking, and shelf life. Improver also helps bakers to move the volume, crumb & crust, and freshness of their bread to the next level.

Bread improvers may be classified as:

1. Minerals improvers, which are mainly added by the miller.
2. Enriching agents, mainly added by the baker, and
3. Yeast foods which come under 1 and 2.

Mineral Improvers

The most important minerals that are added to bread is sodium chloride, i.e. common salt. The amount of salt in the bread can eliminate the slightest of faults

Per-sulphates

Ammonium and potassium per-sulphates are widely used by the miller. These increase the water absorption power of the flour thus increasing the yield. The toughening effect on the flour due to the effect of nascent oxygen in gluten. It is used at the rate of half an ounce per 280 pounds of flour.

Potassium Bromate

Bromate gives stability to the gluten. It has an astringent action on the gluten thus increasing the need for more water in the dough. It increases the gas retention of gluten, thus increasing the volume of the bread. It is used at the rate of 1/10^th ounce per 280 pounds of flour by the miller.

The use of bromates is banned in some countries.

Sulphates

Sulphates have an astringent action on gluten together with the bleaching effect. Therefore additional sulphates such as magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt) and sodium sulphate produced a good volume in bread. However, its use in bread making has been banned because they are injurious to health. Soya flour is now used for the bleaching effect in bread making.

Phosphate

Acid calcium phosphate and ammonium phosphate both have a tightening action on the gluten, thus necessitating the addition of more water during dough making. It, therefore, results in increasing the volume of bread phosphates are a necessary constituent of yeast cells, therefore it is an important yeast food. An increased quantity of acid calcium phosphate also acts as a rope inhibitor. Acid calcium phosphate is used at 2 pounds per 280 ponds of flour as a fermentation stimulant and 21ponds per 280 pounds to inhibit rope. Ammonium phosphate is used at the rate of 8 ounces per 280 pounds of flour.

Lime water

Lime water is used to retard the rate of fermentation in hot weather. It also has an astringent action on the gluten. Alkaline lime reduces the acidity of the dough, thus slowing the rate of fermentation.

It is used at the rate of about 200ml per 280 pounds flour.

Organic Acids

The addition of organic acids such as lactic and succinic acids condition the gluten. They are also the natural constituents of fermented dough and therefore their addition can be done safely. Lactic acid is added at the rate of 8 ounces per 280 pounds of flour and succinic acids are added at the rate of 2 to 4 ounces per 280 pounds of flour.

 

Enriching Agents

Malt

There are two types of malt: diastatic and nondiastatic

The functions of diastatic malt are:

1. It adds flavor.
2. It increases the amount of sugar in the dough.
3. It supplies diastatic enzymes for the breakdown of starch thus helping in the fermentation process.
4. It also contains proteolytic enzymes which help to modify and condition gluten.

Nondiastatic malt only provides sugar and flavour.

Sugar

With the exception of lactose, all sugars are fermentable by yeast. The sugar in the flour normally sufficient for the steady fermentation process by helping in producing gas. Sometimes the baker faces the problem of flour with a low maltose figure. If this flour is used for bread making, the resultant bread will be of low volume and pale crust color. Though sugar is important in the fermentation process, the yeast action is different if the quantity of sugar is more in the dough. In doughs containing a sugar solution up to 10% the rate of fermentation increases. Above this level, the fermentation speed slows down. In sweet dough, the level of sugar is above 30% and therefore sponge and dough must be used for the initial boost in the fermentation. Semisolid sugar such as fondant, glucose, invert sugar, golden syrup, honey and treacle are more easily digested by the yeast because they contain a higher percentage of monosaccharides

Fats

Fat is a shorting agent and therefore it reduces the toughness and mellows the gluten, It also gives moistness to the bread, thus reducing staling. In small quantity, fats act as a lubricating agent which help in extending the gluten strands. In large quantity, it shortens the gluten, and the crust and the crumb has a greasy feel.

Following are the effects of fats in bread:

1. It increases the food value of the product.
2. Fat reduces elasticity and makes the bread more digestible by softening the crust and the crumb.
3. It moistens the bread, thus retarding staling.
4. Fat lubricates the gluten strands in normal amounts but if used in larger amounts, the volume of the bread become small.
5. Butter and lard add flavor to the bread.
6. Fat retards fermentation if used in larger amounts.

Milk

Milk contains carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, and vitamins. Therefore the nutritive value of bread is greatly increased if milk is added to the dough.

Skim milk powder necessitates the use of more water while making the dough. The whole milk contains fat which lubricates the gluten but the milk protein has a tightening action on gluten which increases its stability.

Lactose, the milk sugar is only slightly fermented by yeast and therefore increases the crust color because of its caramelization during baking.

Milk bread cannot be termed as milk bread unless it contains at least 6% whole milk solid based on the weight of flour.

 

Yeast foods

These include phosphates, malt and sugar which have been described above.

Use of enzymes as bread Improves  

Enzymes are nitrogenous compounds found in living organisms and can be described as organic catalysts. Enzymes can be used to replace potassium bromated which has been banned in many countries.

Fungal alpha-amylases have been used in bread making. Amylases can degrade starch and produce dextrin for yeast to act upon. There is also a special type amylase that modifies starch during baking to give a significant antistaling effect.

Amylases Increase the fermentation to obtain even crumb structure and a high loaf volume. Maltogenic amylases improve shelf life. Malt flour and malt extracts can be used as enzymes supplement because malt is rich in alpha-amylases. In addition sugar such as glucose and maltose produced by these enzymes enhance Maillard’s reaction responsible for browsing action, thereby developing an attractive baked flavor. Emulsifiers have a limited antistaling effect. Maltogenic amylases have the best antistaling effect.

Enzymes such as hemicellulases, xylanases, lipases, proteases, and oxidases can directly or indirectly improve the strength of the gluten network and hence improve the quality of the finished loaf.

Protease is helpful in modifying tough gluten and making it more extensible.

The addition of lipases modifies triglycerides thereby modifying their interaction with gluten resulting in strong gluten network. It also ensures more stable dough in case of over fermentation. Because of more uniform and smaller crumb cells,  the crumb texture is silkier and crumb colour appears to be whiter.

Chemical oxidants such as bromates and ascorbic acid have been used to strengthen the gluten. Oxidases such as glucose oxidase can partially replace the use of chemical oxidants and achieve a better bread quality

Enzymes such as lipases, xylanase, and amylases should all be used together because the interaction of their residues is complex and the effect will not be seen if only one of these enzymes is used.

An overdose of these enzymes will have a detrimental effect on the dough and hence these should be used with discretion.

 

• IMP (Insoluble sodium metaphosphate) They include

1). Gluten oxidizers such as per-sulfates bromates, iodates.

2). Bleaches

3). Diastatic correctives

4). Nutrients required by law

5). An additive that makes up the composition of special flour.

 

Improvers used by the baker

1). Diastatic additives and sugar

2). Yeast foods

3). Fat

4). Crumb softeners such as Soya flour, lecithin, GMS, SSL (Sodium Stearyl lactylate), CSL (Calcium stearoyl lactylate), DATEM (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides)

5). Rope and mold inhibitors

6). Miscellaneous additives such as gluten, milk and milk products, spices, fruit, and nuts.

 

Pastry Making

In this chapter, the student will understand The different types of pastries. The methods of making and incorporating fat in different pastries. Care to be taken while making pastries. The term pastry comes from the word paste which mixture of flour fat and liquid. In the bakery the pastry refers to various types of pastes and doughs to make variety of goods.

The different types of pastries are:

a). Puff pastry

b). Danish pastry

c). Shortcrust pastry

d). Choux pastry

Puff Pastry

Puff pastry is a laminated structure consisting of layers of fat separated by dough. It does not contain any leaving agent and yet it rises during baking due to the steam which is formed due to the moisture in the dough. Puff pastry is one of the most difficult products to make because it involves careful rolling that requires a lot of times and it consists of hundreds of layers.

There is three main method of making Puff Pastry: French, English, and Rough and tough.

The basic formula remains the same and the difference is in the rolling technique.

Strong Flour                               500g

Salt                                                 10g

Melted butter                           75g

Water                                           250g

Pastry fat for rolling in            300g

Sieve the flour on the slab and rub in the butter. Make a bay and add water to make a smooth dough. Covet it with a damp cloth to prevent crusting. Weigh the pastry fat and bring it to a homogenous plastic condition. Mould it into a compact block.

 French Method   

Roll out the dough to form a rectangle about half-inch thick. Then roll out the four sides more thinly. Roll out the block of pastry fat to the same size as the thick central, rectangle of the dough. Fold the four flaps over the fat so that it forms an envelope enclosing the fats. With firm even pressure on the rolling pin, roll out the paste into a rectangle. Brush off all extra flour on the upper surface. Fold over end two-third along the rectangle. Again brush off the flour. Then fold the opposite ends of the piece to cover the first fold. Now we have rectangle consisting of three layers of pastry separated by layers of dough. The paste is said to have received one-half turn. Turn the paste around on the slab, roll it out again, and once more fold into three. Brush off all extra flour. At the conclusion of the operation the paste consists of nine layers of pastry fat separated by layers of dough.

Before any further work is done on the paste is must be given a rest of at least half an hour to let it recover from the effect of rolling and folding. During this period the paste should be covered with a clean cloth and must be kept in cool place.

On the completion of the rest period, the paste is given two more half turns. At the end of this process the paste now consist of 81 layers of pastry fat separated by the layers of dough. Again a rest period of an hour must be given to the paste to enable it to overcome the stretching and folding. Two more half turns are given thus making them six in all. This operation is followed by a final resting period of one hour before the paste can be cut into small goods. Theoretically, the puff paste made by this method has 729 layers of pastry fat separated from each other by a layer of dough

English Method

The dough is rolled in a rectangle. The pastry fat is broken into small parts and this is evenly distributed to cover two-third of the paste. The untreated third is folded over to cover half of the treated area and then folded over again to cover the last portion. Therefore we have two layers of dispersed parts of fat separated by layers of dough. Roll out the paste again and then fold the ends of the paste to the centre and fold over once more. This is called a four-fold turn. After one such run, the paste consists of eight layers of fat separated from one another with layers of dough. Another fourfold turn gives 32 layers of fat.

After being rest for one hour, two more fourfold turns are given to produce a structure containing 512 layers of fat separated by layers of dough. A better paste is produce if after the usual rest the paste is rolled into a rectangle and folded in two to give 1024 layers of fat. The paste is given a further resting period of one hour before being cut into the required variety of pastry.

Scotch Method (Rough Puff)      

The quickest way is the Scotch or Blitz method. It is suitable for making pastry for pies, sausage rolls and pasties. Flour, Salt, cold water, and dough fat are mixed together in a mixing bowl. Walnut-sized lumps of fat are then added to the bowl and are mixed in a little, to ensure large lumps of fat are left whole in the dough. The fat is distributed throughout the dough in fat discs, rather than a continuous sheet as with the other methods. As a result, this pastry does not always rise evenly and so is not suitable for products that must look exceptionally good. The paste is rolled into a rectangle and given the usual folds with a resting period in between. The lumps of fat get rolled out into thin flaky layers to produce a laminated structure.

Cutting of Puff Pastry 

In cutting the puff paste, one must take every care not to destroy the layers which have been so carefully produced. Roll out the paste evenly and firmly but avoid slapping and banging it about with the rolling pin. Puff paste should always be cut on the table which is cool and level, thus keeping the fat in proper condition. Cut the paste with a sharp cutting tool to avoid the fusion of layers. Do not pull the cutting knife in the paste as it spoils the shape of the goods. After the pastry has been cut and treated as required i.e. washed sugared etc. The goods are set out in clean baking sheets. It is better if all the sheets are lightly flushed with water. The tray is now set to rest in a cool spot to rest for at least one hour after which they can be baked. Puff paste are made of strong flour its gluten can be made elastic by adding a small amount of cream of tartar or lime juice or acetic acid.

Aeration of puff pastry

All the method of making puff paste are designed to produce a laminated structure in which layers of dough alternate with layers of pastry fat. When the paste is baked the fat melts and forms oily layers between the leaves of dough preventing them from sticking together. As the heat penetrates further into the base, the water in the dough layers is converted into steam. Its find its way between the various layer of dough where its expands thus distending the gluten from the dough. It pushes the oil layers if the dough apart. This increases the volume of the paste. Later the gluten of the flour coagulated, the water is dried out and when the paste is cooled it is able to retain its puffy volume. If baked in a cool oven the paste will not puff to the fullest extent. Some of the goods made using puff paste are khari, palmiers, voul-au-vents, cream horns ,jam, veg or chicken puffs, etc.

 

Phyllo Dough

 Phyllo, also known as filo or fillo dough, (Greek ‘leaf’) consists of paper-thin sheet of raw, unleavened flour dough. The Turkish name for Phyllo is Yufka, though there is also a Turkish flatbread named Yufka. Phyllo dough is made of flour, water and small amount of oil. It is almost always used in multiple layers separated by melting butter. When this is baked, they become crispy and the result resembles puff pastry, though the method is very difficult, and they are generally not substituted for one another.

Phyllo and yufka are used in many of the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire. The individual sheets are layered with butter and other ingredients, then bake to make flaky pies and pastries, including Baklava, borek, gozleme, spanakopita, tyropita, and bstilla. Rolled out dough layers (Made of starch) are also used for making gullac, a Turkish dessert mostly eaten in the holy month Ramadan. Phyllo layers together with walnuts and rose water are placed one by one in warm milk. A similar Egyptian dessert is called Umm ali.

In Turkish cuisine pastries prepare with phyllo are called borek, in Egyptian cuisine, they are called goulash, in Albanian cuisine, they are called byrek, in Austrian-German-Hungarian cuisine the dough is called Blatterteig, and pastries made from phyllo are called Strudel. In Bosnia, the word burek is only used for the pastries with meat and other kind are called pita. In Serbian language phyllo is called more (plural) while the pastries have various names, depending on mode of preparation. In Bulgaria the dough is called Kori Za Banita(Plural) and the generic name for the pastries is Banitsa, although there are special name for some specific kinds.

An early, thick form of phyllo appears to be of Central Asian Turkic origin. As early as the 11^th century, the Diwan Lughat al-Turk, a dictionary of Turkic dialects by Mahmud Kashgari recorded pleated/ folded bread as one meaning of the word Yuvgha, which is related to the word Yufka. The idea of stretching raw dough into paper-thin sheets is a later development, Probably developed in the kitchen of the Topkapi Palace.

Homemade phyllo takes time and skill. It requires progressive rolling and stretching of dough to a single, thin and very big sheet, with continual flouring of its surface, which tends to break apart. A very big table and a long roller is used. Once finished, the phyllo is floured, folded, then used as desired. Most phyllo is made with wheat flour and water, but some dessert recipes call for egg-yolk in addition.

 

Danish Pastry

The combination principles behind the making of puff paste and utilization of fermented and slightly sweet dough is used in making Danish Pastry. Danish Pastry is a sweet pastry that has become a specialty of Denmark and is popular throughout the industrialized world, although the form it takes can differ significantly from country to country. The ingredients include Flour, yeast, milk, eggs, and a generous amount of butter. A yeast dough is rolled out thinly, coated with butter, and then folded into numerous layers. If necessary, the dough is chilled to ease the handling. The rolling, buttering, folding, and chilling is repeated several time to create a dough which is buttery and flaky.

 

 

 

Choux Pastry

Choux pastry is a French Name (Pronounced Shoo) which means cabbage referring to cream burns that look like cabbages. This paste is simple to make as compared with the puff paste. The method consists of the following steps:

1. The fat, liquid, salt, and sugar (if used ) are boiled rapidly so as to disperse the fat in the liquid.
2. Flour is added all at ones and stirred initially the paste sticks to the vessel but after some time the lump of paste leaves the sides of the pan.
3. Cool the pastedown to 60 degrees C.
4. Add small quantities of beaten eggs at a time and beat well after each addition. The paste is now soft. If it is stiff, further addition of eggs may require.
5. Pipe out the paste on greased sheets and bake in a hot oven.

The products are leavened by a stream which expands and the products became hollow. The gluten and the eggs are coagulated which sets the structure. Strong flour is necessary to further strengthen the structure. Great care should be taken while baking choux pastry. The temperature should be high at about 230 degree C. For the first 15 minutes to develop the steam. Then reduce the temperature to 190 degree C  to set the structure. The product must be firm and dry before it are removed from the oven. If remove earlier they may collapse. The empty cases may fill with whipped cream flavored with vanilla and coated with chocolate.

Eclairs and cream burn are example of choux pastry.

 

Short Crust Pastry

As the name indicates, this type of pastry is short eating qualities i.e. there should not be any gluten development. The fat is cut into the flour and mixed till it resemble bread crumbs. Coldwater is sprinkled to bring together the dough. The tarts are thinner then pies and the quality of dough is very important. The best tarts are made by using butter. The dough should be chilled before use. The short dough can be used for making cookies such as shortbreads. The sugar is the first cream with fat and then sifted flour is added to make dough. The fat is incorporated in two ways. In the first method the fat is combined with flour till it resembles bread crumbs. Coldwater is sprinkled to make the dough. There is no gluten development. The second method is the creaming method in which fat and sugar are creamed together. This method is used to make cookies.

The best tarts are made by using butter. The dough should be chilled before use. Short dough can be used for making cookies such as short breads. The sugar is first creamed with fat and then sifted flour is added to make dough.

 

Pie Dough

Pie pastry uses flour, shortening, water and salt. The quality of pie depends on how the shortening and flour are mixed and how the gluten is developed.

There is two basic type of pie dough:

a). Flaky pie and

b). Mealy pie

The difference between them is in how the fat is mixed with flour.

Flaky pie

The fat is rubbed into the flour until the size of fat is that of peas. When water is added the flour absorbs it and gluten is formed. When the dough is rolled out, the lumps of fat is also rolled and became flakes of dough separated by layers of fat.

 

Mealy Pie

For this type, the fat is mixed thoroughly, until the mixture books like bred crumbs. In this case, the flour is coated with more completely with fat. This results in the crust becoming very short because less gluten is developed. Less water is needed to make dough because flour cannot absorb more water. The baked dough will not absorb moisture from the filling and therefore will not become soggy. The mealy dough is used for bottom crusts and flaky dough is used for top crusts.

The fillings used for pies are

1. Fruits either fresh, canned, or cooked
2. Custards or soft fillings which have eggs. The eggs coagulate during baking which sets the filling.
3. Cream pie filling which is made with cornflour.
4. Chiffon pie filling have a light texture which is due to the addition of beaten egg whites and whipped cream. The egg whites and the whipped cream are folded into a fruit base which is stabilized by gelatine.

 

Summary:

A pastry is defined as a mixture of flour and fat in varying proportion. Method of corporation of fat in the pastry depend on the type of pastry.

Puff pastry is a laminated structure where layers of fat are separated by layers of dough.

Danish pastry is almost like puff pastry yeast is added to the dough.

Shortcrust pastries have short eating qualities. They have a variety of filling Choux pastries are hollow pastries and the cases can be filled with cream or custard.

supported by Aparna Gawai